Schizophrenia

☆ SCHIZOPHRENIA☆

Schizophrenia, also sometimes called a split personality disorder, is a chronic, severe, debilitating mental illness which affects about two percent of the population. It is one of the psychotic mental disorders and is characterised behavioural and social abnormalities.

The individual of this disorder also develop disorganised speech, disorganised rigid or lax behaviour, significantly decreased appropriate behaviours and feelings as well as development of delusions.

Most cases of schizophrenia appear in the late teens or early adulthood. This is a disease of the brain and one of the most disabling and emotionally devastating illness and for a long time has not been properly diagnosed and quite often misjudged and misunderstood. Schizophrenia has a biological basis.

The Prevalence Rate of schizophrenia is approximately 1.1% of the population over the age of 18 (source : NIHM) or, in other words, at any other time as many as 51 million people worldwide suffer from schizophrenia, including :

6 to 12 million people in China (a rough estimate based on the population);

4.3 to 8.7 million people in India (a rough estimate based on the population);

2.2 million people in USA;

285,000 people in Australia;

Over 280,000 people in Canada;

Over 250,000 diagnosed cases in Britain.

According to Robin Murray, rates of schizophrenia are generally similar from country to country --- about 0.5% to 1 percent of the population.

☆ Suicide Risk of Schizophrenia ☆

People with the schizophrenia condition have a 50 times higher risk of attempting suicide than the general population. The risk of suicide is very serious in people with schizophrenia. Suicide is the number one cause of premature death among people with schizophrenia, with an estimated 10% to 30% killing themselves and approximately 40% attempting suicide at least once (and as much as 60% of males attempting suicide). The extreme depression and psychoses that can result due to lack of treatment are the usual causes.

☆ Schizophrenia and Violence ☆

People with schizophrenia are far more likely to harm themselves than be violent towards the public. Violence is not a symptom of schizophrenia. Most people with schizophrenia are withdrawn and prefer to be left alone. Drug or alcohol abuse raises the risk of violence in people with schizophrenia, particularly if the illness is untreated, but also in people who have no mental illness.

☆ The First Signs of schizophrenia ☆

The first signs of schizophrenia appear as confusing or even shocking changes in behaviour. The activity of chemical messengers at certain nerve ending in the brain is unusual and may be a clue to the cause of the disorder. When it is severe this can lead to intense panic, anger, depression, elation or other activity. This can be treated giving the majority of people chance to live a ordinary life. Schizophrenia is a group of psychotic disorder that interferes with thinking and mental or emotional responsiveness, which disintegrates the entire personality.

This disorder has important symptoms such as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social or occupational distinction. The onset of symptoms typically occurs in young adulthood with a global lifetime prevalence.

Genetic, early environment, neurobiology, psychological and social process appear to be important contributory factors in the development of the disorder. Although no common cause of Schizophrenia has been identified in all individuals and diagnosed with the condition. In recent days the researchers and clinicians believe it results from a combination of both brain vulnerabilities and life events.

☆ SHYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA ☆
Signs and symptoms of schizophrenia generally are divided into three categories :- positive, negative, and cognitive.

■ Positive Symptoms:

In schizophrenia positive symptoms reflect an excess or distortion of normal functions. These active, abnormal symptoms may include:

▪Delusions : Delusions are false beliefs. These beliefs are not based in reality and usually involve misinterpretation of perception or experience. They are the most common of schizophrenic symptoms.

▪ Hallucination : These usually involve seeing or hearing things that do not exist, although hallucinations can be in any of the senses. Hearing voices is the most common hallucination among people with schizophrenia. These are called auditory hallucinations.

▪ Thought Disorder : Difficulty speaking and organising thoughts may result in stopping speech midsentence or putting together meaningless words, sometimes known as 'word salad'.

▪ Disorganised Behaviour : This may show in a number of ways, ranging from child like silliness to unpredictable agitation.

■ Negative Symptoms:

Negative symptoms refers to a diminishment or absence of characteristics of normal function. They may appear months or years before positive symptoms. They include:

▪ Loss of interest in everyday activities;
▪ Appearing to lack emotion;
▪ Reduced ability to plan or carry out activities;
▪ Neglect of personal hygiene;
▪ Social withdrawal;
▪ Loss of motivation.

■ Cognitive Symptoms:

Cognitive symptoms involve problems with thought process. A person with schizophrenia may be born with these symptoms, but the may worsen when the disorder starts. They include :

▪ Problems with making sense of information;
▪ Difficulty paying attention;
▪ Memory problems.

● Common Symptoms of Schizophrenia ●

• Social withdrawal
• Flat, expressionless gaze
• Inappropriate laughter or crying
• Depression
• Insomnia or oversleeping
• Delusions of persecution
• Delusions of reference
• Delusions of grandeur
• Delusions of control
• Auditory hallucinations 
• Visual hallucinations in some cases
• Disorganised speech
• Disorganised behaviour
• Clumsy in motor functions
• Involuntary movements of the limbs
• Awkward walking
• Unusual gesture and postures
• Appearing desire less or seeking nothing
• Feeling indifferent to important events
• Low motivation or No motivation
• Suicidal thoughts in some cases
• Rapidly changing mood.

                          _______________

   

Definition of perception

☆ Definition of Perception

Sensation is the first stage of the experience of a stimulus or stimuli present in the environment through our senses. But our sense organ become more active when encounters a sensation and act in more complex manner. The eye become more than a camera, the ear is more than a microphone. Both sensory systems transform their stimulus inputs at the very start of their neurological journey, emphasising differences and minimising stimulation that remain unchanged.

When we see a red rose, we merely do not have a sensation of the presence of an object around us, but we recognise it and know the characteristics of the rose. The sensation gets a meaning. This meaning depends not only on the presence o the stimulus but on many other factors like past experience, our needs, and our values. One who has not known about the rose may not be able to make meaning out of it. We rarely got one sensation at a time. We are most of the time flooded with a magnitude of messages. We sort it out, identify and interpret in order to construct a meaningful picture of reality.

So we may define perception as, “An active process in which we select, organise and import sensory input to achieve a group of our surroundings.”

Basic and Applied Fields of Psychology

☆ Basic and Applied Fields of Psychology.

All sciences have broadly two branches. One is the basic or academic branch and other is applied. The basic or academic branch is the result of an academic curiosity or a question. On the other hand, applied branch deals with solving problems by applying inputs  from the basic or academic branch.

The basic fields in psychology are primarily concerned with a identifying the causes of behaviour. There are different kinds of basic fields of psychology named as 1. Biopsychology, 2. Cognitive psychology, 3. Comparative psychology, 4. Cultural psychology, 5. Experimental psychology, 6. Gender psychology, 7. Learning psychology, 8. Personality psychology, 9. Physiological psychology and 10. Sensation and perception psychology.

1. Biopsychology studies the biological bases of behaviour. There is an intimate relationship between psychology and neurology, neurophysiology, neurochemistry and other branches of knowledge  which are directly involved with the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. Genetics, the branch of biology is also an important discipline from the point of view of psychology.

2. Cognitive psychology studies human information processing abilities. Psychologists in this field study all the aspects of cognition such as memory, thinking, problem solving, decision making, language, reasoning and so on.

3. Comparative psychology studies and compares the behaviour of different species, especially animals. That is why some authors used to call this field as animal psychology.

4. Cultural psychology studies the ways in which culture, subculture, and ethnic group membership affect behaviour. These psychologists do cross cultural research and compare behaviour of people of different nations.

5. Experimental psychology investigates all aspects of psychological processes line perception, learning and motivation. The major research method used by these psychologists include controlled experiments. For instance, social psychology may do experiments to determine the effect of various group pressures and influences on a person’s behaviour.

6. Gender psychology does research on differences between males and females, the acquisition of gender identity, and the role of gender throughout life.

7. Learning psychology studies how and why learning occurs. These psychologists develops theories of learning and apply the laws and principles of learning to solve a variety of human problems.

8. Personality psychology studies personality traits and dynamics. These psychologists develop their theories of personality and tests for assessing personality traits.

9. Physiological psychologists investigate the role of biochemical changes within our nervous systems and bodies in everything we do, sense, feel, or think.

10. Sensation and perception psychology studies the sense organs and the process of perception. Psychologists working in this field, investigate the mechanisms of sensation and develop theories about how perception or misperception  (illusion) occurs. They also study how do we perceive depth, movement, and individual differences in perception.

There are also some applied fields viz. 1. Social psychology, 2. Clinical psychology, 3. Community psychology, 4. Consumer psychology, 5. Counselling psychology, 6. Educational psychology, 7. Engineering psychology, 8. Forensic psychology, 9. Industrial/organisational psychology, 10. Medical psychology,  11. School psychology.

1. Social psychology investigates social behaviour, including attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggressiveness, helping and so forth.

2. Clinical psychology does psychotherapy, investigates clinics problems, develops methods of treatment. This field emphasises on the diagnosis, causes and treatment of severe psychological disorders and emotional troubles.

3. Community psychology promotes community-wide mental health through research, prevention, education, and consultation.

4. Consumer psychology researches packaging, advertising, marketing methods, and characteristics of consumers.

5. Counselling psychology does psychotherapy and personal counselling, researches emotional disturbances and counselling methods.

6. Educational psychology investigates classroom dynamics, teaching styles, and learning, develops educational tests, evaluates educational programmes. Investigates all aspects of educational process ranging from curriculum design to techniques of instructions to learning disabilities.

7. Engineering psychology does applied research on the design of machinery, computers, airplanes, automobiles, and so on for business, industry an the military.

8. Forensic psychology investigates problems of crime prevention, rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics;  selects candidates for police work.

9. Industrial/Organisational psychology investigates all aspects of behaviour in work setting ranging from selection and recruitment of employees, performances appraisal, work motivation to leadership.

10. Medical psychology applies psychology to manage medical problems, such as the emotional impact of illness, self-screening for cancer, compliance in taking medicines.

11. School psychologists do psychological testing, referrals, emotional and vocational counselling of students; detect and treat learning disabilities, and help improve classroom learning.

                       _______________

Mental Health

Mental Health

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour. In the field of mental health, clinicians are concerned with disturbed behaviour, it's severity and duration amongst patients, and look for indications of diagnosis, treatment and follow up. At one extreme are the greatly and visibly disturbed people, once called 'insane', 'mad' or 'lunatic', and now called the 'psychotic'. At the other end are the unhappy people, unable to cope effectively with life demands, either over long periods or in brief, stress-related episodes. Against  standards of mental health or normality these are all described as forms of mental disorder or psychopathology.

☆  NORMALITY  ☆

Concept of normality is difficult to explains over a period of time this concept has been changing. Traditionally it was conceptualised as the person's adjustment to his environment. But now it is termed as 'adaptability'. The concept of normality focuses more on positive attributes such as individuality, creativity and self-fulfilment.

Psychological normality has most often been defined either as an average, an ideal, or a level of adjustment. Normality as an average is a statistical definition that identifies the typical or most common behaviours among a group of people as being normal for that group.

Identifying some large middle percentage of a group of persons as showing normal behaviour has the benefit of providing a precise criterion for deciding whom to consider abnormal, namely those who fall outside this middle range. Attention to typical patterns of behaviour also promotes cultural sensitivity.

Cultural sensitivity in this regard consists of recognising that 'normal' for a person depends in part on the attitudes and behaviour patterns that are valued in the groups to which the person belongs. Being aware of normality in terms of customs, traditions, and expectations, an abnormal behaviour in a person may be even considered normal (e.g. possession syndrome) in that person's sociocultural context. Such behaviours in another culture may be considered abnormal and may require treatment.

Normality as an ideal is difficult concept to apply.

○ Level of adjustment as normality : Level of adjustment as a criterion for normality refers to whether people can cope reasonably well with experiences in life, particularly with respect to being able to establish enjoyable interpersonal relationships and work constructively towards self fulfilment goals.

○ Reality testing as normality : Normal persons are able to perceive, interpret and react to what is going on in the world around them in a realistic manner. They appraise themselves in a realistic manner, neither overestimate nor underestimate themselves. They do not misunderstand what others say and do and are able to analyse situations critically.

○ Behaviour control as normality : Normal persons feel in control and are confident in themselves regarding controlling and directing their behaviour. They are able to control their aggressive and sexual impulses.

○ Self worth as normality : Normal individuals are able to appreciate their own self worth and feel accepted by society. They are comfortable in their social relationships and are able to accept and listen to differences of opinion and if they are convinced ready to change their own views also.

○ Self awareness as normality : Even if normal persons do not fully understand their feelings and behaviour yet they do have some awareness of their feelings and motives. Important motives and feelings may be suppressed or hidden from oneself and normal persons would be aware of their feelings and emotions and know the motivation behind their behaviour.

○ Social relationships as normality : Normal individuals are able to form and maintain close, long term and healthy relationships with other people. They do not manipulate or use relationships to their own advantage and are also sensitive to the needs and feelings of others. They are able to reciprocate and provide comfort and affection to people close to them.

○ Effective functioning : Normal people are enthusiastic about life and use their skills and abilities in productive and creative manner. They are able to meet demands of daily life without any need for external force or pressure.

☆  ABNORMALITY  ☆

If we define normality by the above said perspectives, then the opposite of these should mean abnormality. However such statement could be only partly true. Absence of these certainly leads to maladjustment with self and society and also to certain psychological problems.

○ Statistical Infrequency : Under this definition, a person's trait, thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual.

○ Violation of Social Norms : Under this, a person's thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. Their behaviour may be confusing to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable.

○ Maladaptive Behaviour : Maladaptive Behaviours may be thought of as those that cause difficulties, or are counterproductive, for the individual or for others. The repetitive hand washing in obsessive compulsive disorder could be regarded as maladaptive, particularly if it leads to sores or other skin damage. The self-starvation of a patient with severe anorexia nervosa, which sometimes leads to death, would be second example.

○ Personal Distress : Many patients with mental illness experience pronounced personal suffering. For example, patients with severe depression often describe feelings of anguish in addition to misery. Others express their distress in terms of physical complaints and may even visit their doctor believing that they are physically unwell. However, the subjective experience of the patient is not always a reliable indicator of illness, as some do not themselves acknowledge that they are ill.

○ Failure to Function Adequately : Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform routine activities of daily living e.g. self-care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc.

_____________________

Different Senses of Word "Know", by John Hospers

Different Senses of Word "Know", by John Hospers

According to John Hospers, the word 'know' is slippery. It is not always used in the same way. Here are some of it's principal uses :

1. Sometimes when we talk about knowing, we are referring to 'acquaintance' of some kind. For example, "Do you know Richard Smith?" Means approximately the same as "Are you acquainted with Richard Smith?" (Have you met him? etc.). You might know him , in the sense of acquaintance,  without knowing much about him; and you know a great deal about someone but not know him because you have never met him. Or we might ask, "Do you know that quaint old country lane seven miles west of town?" And here, though we can hardly speak of knowing it in quite the same way (we haven't been introduced), we are still talking about acquaintance: Have you been there? Have you seen it by yourself?

2. Sometimes we speak of knowing how --- "Do you know how to ride a horse?" We even use a usual noun - 'know how', in talking about this. Knowing how is an ability --- we know how to ride a horse. If we have the ability to ride a horse, in the appropriate situation we can perform the activity in question. If you place me on a horse, you will so  discover the merits of the claim that I know how to ride a horse.

3. But by the far the most frequent use of the word 'know', and the one with which we shall be primarily concerned, is the propositional sense: "I know that .......... ", where the word 'that' is followed by a proposition: "I know that I am a philosophy student", and so on. There is some relation between this last sense of 'know' and the earlier ones. We cannot be acquainted with Smith without knowing something about him, and it is difficult to see how one can know how to swim without knowing some true propositions about swimming, concerning what you must do with your arms and legs when in the water.

____________________

Difference Between Orthodox (Astika) and Heterodox (Nastika) Schools of Indian Philosophy

Difference Between Orthodox (Astika) and Heterodox (Nastika) Schools of Indian Philosophy

It is customary to divide Indian philosophy into two broad classes :  orthodox or astika and heterodox or nastika.

The words "astika" and "nastika" have a different connotation in Indian philosophical literature. In common parlance as also in modern Indian language, "astika" means "theist" i.e. one believing in God, and "nastika" means "atheist" i.e. one who does not believe in the existence of God.

But in Indian philosophical language, the word "astika" means one who believes in the authority of Vedas. The term "nastika" means its opposite, i.e. one who refuses to accept the authority of Vedas. The orthodox systems recognise the authority of the Vedas while the heterodox systems do not recognise their authority. The former are called "astika" and the latter are called "nastika".

The Carvaka, Bauddha and Jaina schools are heterodox systems. They do not believe in the authority of the Vedas, nor do they accept the Vedas as the source of  valid knowledge. Moreover , none of these schools believe in the existence of God. Thus these three schools are "nastika" in both meanings of the term. Carvaka is a materialistic system. The Carvakas believe in the reality of matter only and do not recognise the reality of soul and God. They are not prepared to admit the reality of anything which is not given  in sense perception. The Bauddhas are phenomenalists in so far as they believe in the reality of phenomena, changes or impermanence. They do not recognise the reality of any immaterial soul-substance other than the fleeting states o consciousness. The Jainas are also atheists, because they do not believe in God as the creator of the world. The Carvaka, Bauddha and Jaina schools arose mainly in opposition to the Vedic culture, and therefore they rejected the authorities of the Vedas.


The Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta are the six orthodox (astika) systems, because they believe in the authority of the Vedas. These six systems are popularly known as "sad-darsana" (six philosophies). Of those six orthodox systems, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not believe in God as the creator of the world, yet they are astika or orthodox since they believe in the authority of Vedas.

____________________

Anxiety

Anxiety 

In everyday life almost everybody gets anxious or feels nervous before a test, or an important business meeting. It is normal to experience anxiety when faced with any stress or threatening situation, but it becomes abnormal to feel strong, chronic anxiety in the absence of a visible cause. There is a growing evidence of most of the people suffering from anxiety disorders are overly sensitive to threat cues, they exhibit a heightened sensitivity, vigilance or readiness to attend to potential threats.

When anxiety occurs in inappropriate times, occurs frequently,  or is so intense and long-lasting that it interferes with a person's normal activities, it is considered a disorder.

The term 'anxiety' is mainly defined as vague, diffuse and a very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. The individual shows combinations of the symptoms like rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination and tremor. People who feel anxious are not aware of the reasons for their fear. Thus even though fear and anxiety involve similar reactions, the cause of worry is readily apparent.

Fear and stress reactions are essential for human survival. They enable people to pursue important goals and to respond appropriately to danger. In a healthy individual, the stress response is provoked by a genuine threat or challenge and is used as a spur for appropriate action. An anxiety disorder, however, involves an excessive or inappropriate state of arousal characterised by feeling of apprehension, uncertainty, or fear.

The word 'anxiety' is derived from the Latin 'angere', which means to choke or strangle. The anxiety response  is often not triggered by a real threat. Nevertheless it can still paralyze the individual into inaction or withdrawal. An anxiety disorder persists, while an appropriate response to a threat resolves, once the threat is removed. Anxiety disorder involve a state of distressing chronic but fluctuating nervousness that is inappropriately severe for the person's circumstances.

Drugs, psychotherapy,  or both can substantially help most people with anxiety disorder.

● Common Symptoms of Anxiety Disorder :-

• Nervousness
• Vigilance
• Sleeplessness
• Breathlessness 
• Feeling faint
• Lack of concentration
• Worry or apprehension 
• Trembling
• Sweating
• Feeling tired
• Frequency of urination
• Palpitation almost pounding of heart
• Muscle tension
• Headaches 
• Insomnia
• Restlessness
• Irritability
• Hot flashes or chills
• Hyperventilation
• Nausea or stomach cramps etc.

● CATEGORY OF ANXIETY DISORDERS ●

According to standard manual for mental health clinicians, DSM IV -TR categorises anxiety disorders under the following headings :

☆ Generalised Anxiety Disorders: This consists of more prolonged, vague, unexplained but intense fears that not seem to be attached to any particular object. It resembles normal fears but no actual danger is present in most of the cases.

♧ Symptoms of Generalised Anxiety Disorders:

• Motor tension 
• Apprehensive feelings about the future
• Automatic reactivity
• Hyper vigilance

☆ Panic Disorder (Panic Attack) : Panic disorders may come about with no warning signs. The indicators are mostly similar to generalised anxiety disorders except they are magnified and usually have a sudden onset. The victims fear that they will die, or go crazy or do something uncontrolled and they report a variety of unusual psycho sensory symptoms. This disorder affect women more than men and younger age groups more than the elderly. Compared to other anxiety disorders panic attacks appear to the more distressing and sometimes severe panic states are followed by periods of psychotic disorganisation in which there is a reduced capacity to test reality.

♧ Symptoms of Panic Attacks :

• Dizziness, unsteadiness or faintness
• Trembling, shaking or sweating
• Heart palpitations or high heart rate
• Chest pain or discomfort
• Numbness or tingling
• Fear of death or losing control

☆ Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) : Obsessions are recurring thoughts, impulses or images that the person tries to eliminate or resist but either cannot or has extreme difficulty in doing so. The person does not have the control on their obsessions which leads to increase anxiety and to the method generally used to try to control the obsessions. People usually involve in doubt, hesitation, fear of contamination, or fear of ones own aggression. Compulsions are thought or action that provide relief are generally used to suppress the obsession. The compulsions are not connected realistically with the obsessions they are excessive in their nature. The victim of OCD tend to be secretive about their pre occupations and frequently are able to work effectively in spite of their problems.

♧ Symptoms of OCD :

• Obsessiveness to check the door locks
• Obsessive of sexual thoughts
• Obsession of counting
• Washing the hands continuously
• Lots of doubts
• Brushing the teeth continuously under compulsion.

☆ Phobias : Phobia is an intense irrational and persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things etc. People with this disorder know exactly for what they are afraid of, except for their fears of specific objects, phobic situations, individuals etc. Physically there does not seem to be anything wrong with them, but their fears are out of proportion with reality seem to be inexplicable and are beyond their voluntary control. One study on phobic patients showed that their fears gell into five categories, viz., (i) separation (ii) animals (iii) bodily mutilation  (iv) social situation and (v) nature.

Classification of Phobias :  Phobias are many and are classified according to the feared object. Those are presented below ---

1. Agora phobia: Fear of open places.
2. Claustro phobia: Fear of closed places.
3. Xeno phobia: Fear of strangers.
4. Ochlo phobia: Fear of crowd.
5. Hemo phobia: Fear of blood.
6. Somni phobia: Fear of sleep.
7. Phasmo phobia: Fear of ghosts.
8. Myso phobia: Fear of dirt.
9. Algophobia: Fear of pain.
10. Andro phobia: Fear of men.
11. Aqua phobia: Fear of water.
12. Hydro phobia: Fear of water.
13. Arachno phobia: Fear of spiders.
14. Social phobia: Fear and embarrassment in dealing with others.

♧ Symptoms of Phobia :

• Intense and disabling fear, panic and anxiety
• Fear become too much excessive and unreasonable
• Avoiding certain places and situation for fear
• Avoidance becomes prominent and affects the normal life
• Obsessive thinking
• Feeling from the situation
• Persistent worry
• Shaking and Palpitation

☆ Post Traumatic Stress Disorder : This is a disorder that develops after a person experiences a traumatic or terrifying event, for example, physical or sexual assault, unexpected death of loved ones, natural disasters causing heavy damage and death and destruction, etc. Long time after the event had occurred the person mentally remains occupied along with the same feelings of anxiety that the original event had produced.

♧ Symptoms of PTSD:

• Anger and irritability
• Flashbacks
• Feeling of intense distress
• Depression and hopelessness
• Feeling jumpy and easily started
• Rapid breathing nausea and muscle tension
• Suicidal thoughts
• Feelings of alienated
• Chest pain

☆ Acute Stress Disorder : It is a psychological condition arising in response to a terrifying or traumatic event. It is similar to post traumatic stress disorder but experienced immediately after the traumatic event. 

♧ Symptoms of ASD :

• Numbness
• Detachment
• Derealisation 
• Depersonalisation
• Dissociative amnesia
• Flashbacks
• Avoidance of any stimulation

____________________

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia 

Schizophrenia, also sometimes called a split personality disorder, is a chronic, severe, debilitating mental illness which affects about two percent of the population. It is one of the psychotic mental disorders and is characterised behavioural and social abnormalities.

The individual of this disorder also develop disorganised speech, disorganised rigid or lax behaviour, significantly decreased appropriate behaviours and feelings as well as development of delusions.

Most cases of schizophrenia appear in the late teens or early adulthood. This is a disease of the brain and one of the most disabling and emotionally devastating illness and for a long time has not been properly diagnosed and quite often misjudged and misunderstood. Schizophrenia has a biological basis.

The Prevalence Rate of schizophrenia is approximately 1.1% of the population over the age of 18 (source : NIHM) or, in other words, at any other time as many as 51 million people worldwide suffer from schizophrenia, including :

6 to 12 million people in China (a rough estimate based on the population);

4.3 to 8.7 million people in India (a rough estimate based on the population);

2.2 million people in USA;

285,000 people in Australia;

Over 280,000 people in Canada;

Over 250,000 diagnosed cases in Britain.

According to Robin Murray, rates of schizophrenia are generally similar from country to country --- about 0.5% to 1 percent of the population.

☆ Suicide Risk of Schizophrenia ☆

People with the schizophrenia condition have a 50 times higher risk of attempting suicide than the general population. The risk of suicide is very serious in people with schizophrenia. Suicide is the number one cause of premature death among people with schizophrenia, with an estimated 10% to 30% killing themselves and approximately 40% attempting suicide at least once (and as much as 60% of males attempting suicide). The extreme depression and psychoses that can result due to lack of treatment are the usual causes.

☆ Schizophrenia and Violence ☆

People with schizophrenia are far more likely to harm themselves than be violent towards the public. Violence is not a symptom of schizophrenia. Most people with schizophrenia are withdrawn and prefer to be left alone. Drug or alcohol abuse raises the risk of violence in people with schizophrenia, particularly if the illness is untreated, but also in people who have no mental illness.

☆ The First Signs of schizophrenia ☆

The first signs of schizophrenia appear as confusing or even shocking changes in behaviour. The activity of chemical messengers at certain nerve ending in the brain is unusual and may be a clue to the cause of the disorder. When it is severe this can lead to intense panic, anger, depression, elation or other activity. This can be treated giving the majority of people chance to live a ordinary life. Schizophrenia is a group of psychotic disorder that interferes with thinking and mental or emotional responsiveness, which disintegrates the entire personality.

This disorder has important symptoms such as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social or occupational distinction. The onset of symptoms typically occurs in young adulthood with a global lifetime prevalence.

Genetic, early environment, neurobiology, psychological and social process appear to be important contributory factors in the development of the disorder. Although no common cause of Schizophrenia has been identified in all individuals and diagnosed with the condition. In recent days the researchers and clinicians believe it results from a combination of both brain vulnerabilities and life events.

☆ SHYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA ☆

Signs and symptoms of schizophrenia generally are divided into three categories :- positive, negative, and cognitive.

■ Positive Symptoms:

In schizophrenia positive symptoms reflect an excess or distortion of normal functions. These active, abnormal symptoms may include:

▪Delusions : Delusions are false beliefs. These beliefs are not based in reality and usually involve misinterpretation of perception or experience. They are the most common of schizophrenic symptoms.

▪ Hallucination : These usually involve seeing or hearing things that do not exist, although hallucinations can be in any of the senses. Hearing voices is the most common hallucination among people with schizophrenia. These are called auditory hallucinations.

▪ Thought Disorder : Difficulty speaking and organising thoughts may result in stopping speech midsentence or putting together meaningless words, sometimes known as 'word salad'.

▪ Disorganised Behaviour : This may show in a number of ways, ranging from child like silliness to unpredictable agitation.

■ Negative Symptoms:

Negative symptoms refers to a diminishment or absence of characteristics of normal function. They may appear months or years before positive symptoms. They include:

▪ Loss of interest in everyday activities;
▪ Appearing to lack emotion;
▪ Reduced ability to plan or carry out activities;
▪ Neglect of personal hygiene;
▪ Social withdrawal;
▪ Loss of motivation.

■ Cognitive Symptoms:

Cognitive symptoms involve problems with thought process. A person with schizophrenia may be born with these symptoms, but the may worsen when the disorder starts. They include :

▪ Problems with making sense of information;
▪ Difficulty paying attention;
▪ Memory problems.

● Common Symptoms ●

1. Social withdrawal
2. Flat, expressionless gaze
3. Inappropriate laughter or crying
4. Depression
5. Insomnia or oversleeping
6. Delusions of persecution
7. Delusions of reference
8. Delusions of grandeur
9. Delusions of control
10. Auditory hallucinations 
11. Visual hallucinations in some cases
12. Disorganised speech
13. Disorganised behaviour
14. Clumsy in motor functions
15. Involuntary movements of the limbs
16. Awkward walking
17. Unusual gesture and postures
18. Appearing desire less or seeking nothing
19. Feeling indifferent to important events
20. Low motivation or No motivation
21. Suicidal thoughts in some cases
22. Rapidly changing mood

_____________________

Clinical Psychology

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the largest subfield of psychology.  Clinical psychologists come closest to many people's idea of what a psychologist is. They are "doctors" who diagnose psychological disorders and treat them by means of psychotherapy.

A clinical psychologist normally holds a Ph. D. or M. A. or Psy. D. Degree and has done several years of postgraduate work in a psychology department. Clinical psychologists are trained to apply psychotherapeutic techniques, to diagnose psychological disorders, and to do research on the causes of these disorders. 

Clinical psychology and psychiatry are often confused because practitioners of both disciplines use psychotherapy in the treatment of behavioural problems. However, unlike clinical psychologists, psychologists are trained as physicians and hold M. D. degrees; they become psychiatrists by doing several years of residency in a psychiatry department. Being physicians, psychiatrists can use drugs and other medical means to treat psychological disorders.

The clinical psychologist, who does not have medical training, cannot prescribe drugs to treat behaviour disorders. It means that whenever there is a possibility of a medical disorder, a patient should be examined by a psychiatrist or other physician. Further, in most states, only a psychiatrist can commit a patient to a hospital for care and treatment.

On the other hand, psychologists are usually better trained in doing research; thus, clinical psychologists are somewhat more likely than psychiatrists to be involved in systematically studying better ways of diagnosing, treating, and preventing behaviour disorders. Psychologists are also more likely than psychiatrists to use psychotherapy methods that have grown out of scientific research. Clinical psychologists also tend to rely more heavily than psychiatrists on standardised tests as an aid to diagnose behaviour disorders.

Confusion between the fields of clinical psychology and psychiatry arises because both provide psychotherapy. They both use various techniques to relieve the symptoms of psychological disorders and to help people understand the reasons of their problems. Such psychotherapeutic techniques range from giving support and assurance to someone in a temporary crisis to extensive probing to find the motives behind behaviour. 

Many clinical psychologists practice in state mental hospitals, veterans' hospitals, community mental health centres, and similar agencies. In the institutions and clinics where many clinical psychologists practice, while psychiatrists often are available for prescribing medical treatment when needed, psychologists do a large part of professional work of diagnosis and treatment, as well as holding important administrative jobs and doing much of the research.

The clinical psychologist and the psychiatrist should also be distinguished from the psychoanalyst. A psychoanalyst is a person who uses the particular psychotherapeutic techniques which originated with Sigmund Freud and his followers. Anyone who has had the special training required to use these techniques can be psychoanalyst. Since psychoanalysis originated in Freud's medical and psychiatric practice, it was first adopted by psychiatrists, and thus, today, many psychiatrists are also psychoanalysts. But clinical psychologists who have had psychoanalytic training can also be psychoanalysts, as can people who are neither psychiatrists nor clinical psychologists.